Bodhisattva in Lotus Position
Bodhisattva in Lotus Position
Bodhisattva in Lotus Position
1368 -1688 CE
Wood with lacquer and gilt
11.25 in x 5.5 in
Ming Dynasty
1985.051
This object is a small wooden statue, only about a foot tall and half a foot wide at its widest point, covered in red lacquer and gold gilt. It dates from the Ming dynasty (1368-1688), a period of resurgence in Buddhism after the reign of Emperor Jiajing (1507-1567, r. 1522-1566), who favored Daoism which led to a very active intellectual and Buddhist artistic period in China connected with a resurgence in Buddhism.1 The statue consists of a pedestal with a lotus flower on top, on which a bodhisattva figure sits. Some of the bodhisattva’s arms, which are pictured here in the supplemental images, are now broken off.
A bodhisattva is a Buddhist figure meant to be admired as one who is both on the path towards enlightenment and helping others achieve enlightenment. The Chinese translations of the word all contain the root shi (“gentleman” or “scholar”) with an adjective that emphasizes their high position, reinforcing their position in society as one to be venerated.2 Worship of bodhisattvas comprised a large portion of the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism in East Asia, with four bodhisattvas being of particular relevance to China: Wenshu, Dizang, Puxian, and the deity most likely represented in this statue, Guanyin.3
Guanyin is the East Asian representation of Avalokiteśvara, one of the primary bodhisattvas in the Buddhist pantheon.4 Guanyin is seen as a universal savior and a bodhisattva of compassion and is widely considered to be one of the most popular figures in Buddhism.5 In adapting Avalokiteśvara to Chinese culture, the bodhisattva took on some female characteristics, and many portrayals appear androgynous or specifically feminine.6
Although this statue is likely of Guanyin, due to Guanyin’s popularity and prevalence during the Ming dynasty and many representations with multiple arms, another option could be one of Guanyin’s other avatars, Zhunti (Sanskrit: Cundi). Evidence for this comes from the Cundi Dharani Sutra, which describes Zhunti’s portrayal as sitting in a lotus position atop a lotus, with robes, bangles, crown, and objects in her many hands including a sword, citron fruit, goad, wand, rosary, red lotus, cord, wheel, conch, and vase.7 The objects found in the statues’ hands resemble some of these described objects. Worship of Zhunti was thought to bring many benefits, including healing, protection, prevention of disasters, and resolution of disputes.8
In order to achieve the benefits associated with bodhisattvas, Chinese Buddhists had to demonstrate their reverence. The Chinese term ganying, translated to “stimulus-response,” describes the relationship between Buddhist worshippers and the divine; worshippers believe that repeated and profound devotion will result in a positive response from a deity. Furthermore, construction of this Bodhisattva statue includes elements of mortality and movement. The layers of lacquer and gilt “function as an epidermis,” or surface layer of skin that will wear away over time.9 Buddhist statues had both divine and earthly qualities that allowed devotees to imbue the statues with liveliness and ensure their good fortune through worship.
Scent also plays a role in Chinese Buddhist ritual. Bodhisattvas are “devoid of foul odors,” whereas ordinary people have a foul odor.10 Thus, Buddhist ritual involves the cleansing of the space around representations of a bodhisattva through incense, the material of the statue, or application of substances, allowing the Buddhist deities to “dwell among us in comfort.”11 One of the hands of this Bodhisattva figure has red powder on it. Buddhism traveled from its birthplace in India to China via the Silk Road, possibly bringing the Hindu and Indian Buddhist tradition of applying powder to religious statues and images with it.1213 The Sutra on the Merits of Bathing the Buddha tells people to “use oxhead sandalwood, white sandalwood, [or] red sandalwood” to clean the Buddha. Although the material of the red powder is currently unverified, it may have been a tool used by worshippers to achieve this cleanliness to please the bodhisattva and earn good results as part of the many rituals that could be performed in veneration of a bodhisattva statue like this one.
Daniel Osheroff
Economics and Spanish
Class of 2024
Ela Shroff
Political Science
Class of 2025
Annotated Bibliography
Chün-fang Yü, and Yao Chongxin. “Guanyin and Dizang: The Creation of a Chinese Buddhist Pantheon.” Asiatische Studien 70, no. 3 (2016): 757–96. https://doi.org/10.1515/asia-2015-0031.
These authors argue that one must examine Buddhist art in order to get a full picture of the Chinese Buddhist pantheon, taking the often paired Guanyin and Dizang bodhisattvas (in Sanskrit, Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta) as an example. The authors then describe how the miracle stories relating to images of the two bodhisattvas connect, emphasizing their similarity, and then highlight how they may be separate by presenting a relatively simplistic claim that one (Guanyin) offers salvation in life and the other (Dizang) in death. This source provided extensive evidence for their points and served as a source of information on religious practices and beliefs specific to Guanyin.
Eck, Diana L. “Darshan of the Image.” India International Centre Quarterly 13, no. 1 (1986): 43-53. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23001674.
“Avalokiteshvara.” Encyclopedia Britannica, October 6, 2023 https://www.britannica.com/topic/Avalokiteshvara.
Heller, Natasha. “Bodhisattva Cults in Chinese Buddhism.” In The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism, 221–38. Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118610398.ch11.
This chapter from The Wiley Blackwell Companion to East and Inner Asian Buddhism details four of the most prevalent bodhisattva cults in Chinese buddhism throughout the centuries in detail: Wenshu, Dizang, Guanyin, and Puxian. For each of these four, Heller describes the sutras that serve as the source scripture, general ritualistic practices, and other key details or stories for the bodhisattva. The source provides an excellent, straightforward, and easy to read summary of the key deities within Chinese buddhism and is especially useful to this exhibition entry in its information regarding Guanyin that was used in the section describing Guanyin’s significance.
Ganvir, Shrikant. “Cultural Linkage Between Ancient Buddhist Art of India and East Asia: A Case Study of Eleven-headed Avalokitesvara.” Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 72/73 (2012): 257–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43610701.
Gimello, Robert M. “Icon and Incantation: The Goddess Zhunti and the Role of Images in the Occult Buddhism of China.” In Images in Asian Religions, 225–56. University of British Columbia Press, 2004. https://doi.org/10.59962/9780774851107-011
This essay chapter from the collection Images in Asian Religions provides a concise description of one of the lesser known of the Chinese buddhist deities, Zhunti, the eastern adoption of the bodhisattva Cundi. Gimello provides a very clear description of the goddess, taken from the Cundi dharani sutra, that describes how one should depict Cundi and most importantly what is to be contained in each of her hands. The bodhisattva that is the object of this exposition has numerous hands that clearly have objects in them, although time has worn away these objects so they can no longer be seen properly. In attempting to determine which bodhisattva is depicted in the statue, the descriptions of Cundi Gimello provides are very helpful.
Junjiro, Takakusu, ed. Taisho Tripitaka. Volume 20.
Lopez, Donald S., ed. Buddhism in Practice: Abridged Edition. Princeton University Press, 2007. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvcm4h64.
This source discusses various Buddhist sutras, translating them and providing analysis. Specifically, the sutra about the importance of bathing the Buddha is important for our discussion because it helps us understand the presence of red powder on the statue, and the origin of ritual to cleanse Buddhist statues.
Schopen, Gregory. “The Fragrance of the Buddha, the Scent of Monuments, and the Odor of Images in Early India.” Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient 101 (2015): 11–30. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26435096.
This source describes the textual evidence regarding the scent of the Buddha and how that relates to the scent of humans, and how that plays a role in Buddhist ritual practice. Understanding that the Buddha has a uniquely positive scent and humans do not helps us determine how people might treat Buddhist statues, in order to cleanse away human odor and restore the scent of the Buddha.
Wang, Michelle C. “Early Chinese Buddhist Sculptures as Animate Bodies and Living Presences.” Ars Orientalis 46 (2016): 13–38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26350430.
Wang describes the documented accounts of Buddhist statues coming to life and animating themselves, and how Buddhist ritual practice can help devotees see statues as lifelike and understand their importance. This source provides an explanation of how Buddhist statues, like the one we are discussing, function for Buddhists as living beings with agency.
Yü, Chün-fang. The Renewal of Buddhism in China : Zhuhong and the Late Ming Synthesis. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020. https://doi.org/10.7312/yu–19852.